《《DeliberatePractice(PsychologicalReview)》.pdf

Psychological Review Copyright 1993 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1993, Vol. 100. No. 3, 363-406 OO33-295X/93/S3.OO The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance K. Anders Ericsson, Ralf Th. Krampe, and Clemens Tesch-Romer The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. Our civilization has always recognized exceptional individ- because observed behavior is the result of interactions between uals, whose performance in sports, the arts, and science is environmental factors and genes during the extended period of vastly superior to that of the rest of the population. Specula- development. Therefore, to better understand expert and ex- tions on the causes of these individuals extraordinary abilities ceptional