不完全竞争与它的极端垄断.ppt

纽约市出租车行业进入的法律障碍，导致对出租车服务的过度需求。无许可证的出租车在纽约街上到处行驶，非法载客。有时候它们的存在导致与有许可证的司机的暴力冲突。再一个问题是，有许可证的司机由于在市区有很多载客机会，往往不愿送顾客去载客机会较少的邻近或边远地区。 ——摘自：克雷格?彼得森、克里斯?刘易斯：《管理经济学》第4版，第311页 * 第二十九页，共77页 高进入成本 In some industries the price of entry simply may be very high. Companies build up (树立) intangible (无形的) forms of investment. * 第三十页，共77页 AC Output New Firm Old firm 绝对成本优势 AC AC’ * 第三十一页，共77页 商业秘密 One source of such barriers is that established firms may possess valuable know-how (诀窍) in production or so-called trade secrets (商业秘密). One of the best kept secrets in the industrial world is the secret ingredient (成分) in Coca Cola. * 第三十二页，共77页 无形投资 Microsoft Word * 第三十三页，共77页 广告和产品差异 Advertising can create product awareness and loyalty (产品知名度和忠诚度) to well-known brands. Product differentiation can impose (强加) a barrier to entry. * 第三十四页，共77页 广告 For example, Pepsi and Coca-Cola spend together hundreds of millions of dollars per year advertising their brands, which makes it very expensive for any potential rivals to enter the cola market. * 第三十五页，共77页 产品差异 The enormous number of differentiated products also serves to discourage potential competitors. 产量 成本 进入后的可能市场份额 新进入者由于可能得到的市场份额达不到较经济的规模而不愿意进入。 * 第三十六页，共77页 边际收益和垄断 9.2 第三十七页，共77页 价格、数量和总收益 total revenue = price × quantity, or TR = P×q and P = AR = TR/q * 第三十八页，共77页 边际收益 Marginal revenue (MR) is the change in revenue that is generated by an additional unit of sales. MR can be either positive or negative. * 第三十九页，共77页 quantity q price P=AR=TR/q total revenue TR=P×q 0 200 0 1 180 180 2 160 320 3 140 420 4 120 480 5 100 500 6 80 480 7 60 ? 8 40 320 9 ? 180 10 0 0 Marginal revenue (MR) ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Total and Marginal Revenue (p162) +180 +140 +100 +60 +20 - 20 - 60 - 100 - 140 - 180 20 420 * 第四十页，共77页 5 - 140 - 100 - 60 - 20 +20 +180 +140 +100 +60 0 100 200 -100 10 d = AR d = AR MR 若需求曲线为直线，MR 也为直线。若需求曲线与纵轴相交，MR 也与纵轴相交，且交点相同。 * 第四十一页，共77页 负的边际收益 Negative MR means that in order to sell additional units, the firm must