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类型一/二：单一整体性/嵌入式案例 同样的案例可能包含一个以上的分析单元。嵌入式分析单元是比案例本身更小的分析单元。 研究某个 经营计划 嵌入式分析单元 计划中的个别专案 “过程”单元： 会议、事件节点 计划涉及的人员、角色 如果案例研究只考察一个计划或组织整体的本质，那就是使用整体性设计（类型一）。 三、案例研究类型 单一案例设计易犯之错误 整体性设计进一步的问题是，整个案例研究的本质可能会在研究进行期间有所改变，但研究者却一无所知。 嵌入式设计的易犯错误：只注重子单元层级，而无法回到更大的分析单元。 三、案例研究类型 Multiple Case Design This means that the same study has two or more cases The evidence from multiple cases is often considered more compelling, which makes the overall study more robust. Undertaking a multiple case study can require extensive resources and time beyond the means of a single researcher. Each case must be chosen carefully and specifically The cases should have similar results (a literal replication) or contrary results (a theoretical replication) predicted explicitly at the outset of the investigation. 三、案例研究类型 Multiple Case Design It is important in a replication process to develop a rich, theoretical framework. The framework needs to state the conditions under which a particular phenomenon is likely to be found (literal replication) and the conditions under when it is not likely to be found (theoretical replication). The individual cases within a multiple-case study design may be either holistic or embedded. When an embedded design is used each individual case study may in fact include the collection and analysis of highly quantitative data, e.g. surveys. 三、案例研究类型 选择多重案例的优缺点 稳健性 资源与时间的耗费 无法替代关键性、揭露式以及例外或少见的案例。 无法满足采用单一案例的原因 执行多重案例研究可能会需要大量的资源，耗费大量的时间。 多重案例得到的证据，通常都被认为是较强有力的，因此，整个研究常被认为是较为稳健的。 三、案例研究类型 Analyzing within field and cross case data: This preliminary analysis assists in organizing the enormous quantities of data Cross case data forces researchers to go beyond initial impressions. For cross-case data analysis, can look at within group similarities and intergroup differences. Select pairs of cases, and list similarities and differences between each group – forces researcher to look for subtle similarities and differences. Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., (1989) Building Theories Fro